Artificial Photosynthesis

Artificial Photosynthesis

Author: Anthony F. Collings

Publisher: John Wiley & Sons

Published: 2007-09-24

Total Pages: 339

ISBN-13: 3527606912

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Since the events crucial to plant photosynthesis are now known in molecular detail, this process is no longer nature's secret, but can for the first time be mimicked by technology. Broad in its scope, this book spans the basics of biological photosynthesis right up to the current approaches for its technical exploitation, making it the most complete resource on artificial photosynthesis ever published. The contents draw on the expertise of the Australian Artificial Photosynthesis Network, currently the world's largest coordinated research effort to develop effective photosynthesis technology. This is further backed by expert contributions from around the globe, providing an authoritative overview of current research worldwide.


Book Synopsis Artificial Photosynthesis by : Anthony F. Collings

Download or read book Artificial Photosynthesis written by Anthony F. Collings and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2007-09-24 with total page 339 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the events crucial to plant photosynthesis are now known in molecular detail, this process is no longer nature's secret, but can for the first time be mimicked by technology. Broad in its scope, this book spans the basics of biological photosynthesis right up to the current approaches for its technical exploitation, making it the most complete resource on artificial photosynthesis ever published. The contents draw on the expertise of the Australian Artificial Photosynthesis Network, currently the world's largest coordinated research effort to develop effective photosynthesis technology. This is further backed by expert contributions from around the globe, providing an authoritative overview of current research worldwide.


Energy Conversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis

Energy Conversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis

Author: Katharina Brinkert

Publisher: Springer

Published: 2019-04-23

Total Pages: 127

ISBN-13: 9783030085919

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This book discusses the basic principles and processes of solar energy conversion in natural photosynthesis. It then directly compares them with recent developments and concepts currently being pursued in artificial photosynthetic systems that are capable of utilizing sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into a chemical fuel. In this regard, the main focus is on photoelectrochemical cells, in which semiconducting photoanodes and -cathodes modified with (electro-) catalysts are used to oxidize water, produce hydrogen and reduce carbon dioxide in a monolithic device. The fundamental photochemical and photophysical processes involved are presented and discussed, along with protection mechanisms and efficiency calculations for both natural and artificial photosynthesis. In turn, key parameters that are crucial for the efficient operation of natural photosynthesis are identified. Lastly, their validity and applicability in the design of artificial solar-driven water-splitting systems are examined.


Book Synopsis Energy Conversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis by : Katharina Brinkert

Download or read book Energy Conversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis written by Katharina Brinkert and published by Springer. This book was released on 2019-04-23 with total page 127 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book discusses the basic principles and processes of solar energy conversion in natural photosynthesis. It then directly compares them with recent developments and concepts currently being pursued in artificial photosynthetic systems that are capable of utilizing sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into a chemical fuel. In this regard, the main focus is on photoelectrochemical cells, in which semiconducting photoanodes and -cathodes modified with (electro-) catalysts are used to oxidize water, produce hydrogen and reduce carbon dioxide in a monolithic device. The fundamental photochemical and photophysical processes involved are presented and discussed, along with protection mechanisms and efficiency calculations for both natural and artificial photosynthesis. In turn, key parameters that are crucial for the efficient operation of natural photosynthesis are identified. Lastly, their validity and applicability in the design of artificial solar-driven water-splitting systems are examined.


Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

Author: Dmitry Shevela

Publisher: World Scientific Publishing

Published: 2018-11-09

Total Pages: 204

ISBN-13: 9813223138

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Photosynthesis has been an important field of research for more than a century, but the present concerns about energy, environment and climate have greatly intensified interest in and research on this topic. Research has progressed rapidly in recent years, and this book is an interesting read for an audience who is concerned with various ways of harnessing solar energy. Our understanding of photosynthesis can now be said to have reached encyclopedic dimensions. There have been, in the past, many good books at various levels. Our book is expected to fulfill the needs of advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate students in branches of biology, biochemistry, biophysics, and bioengineering because photosynthesis is the basis of future advances in producing more food, more biomass, more fuel, and new chemicals for our expanding global human population. Further, the basics of photosynthesis are and will be used not only for the above, but in artificial photosynthesis, an important emerging field where chemists, researchers and engineers of solar energy systems will play a major role.


Book Synopsis Photosynthesis by : Dmitry Shevela

Download or read book Photosynthesis written by Dmitry Shevela and published by World Scientific Publishing. This book was released on 2018-11-09 with total page 204 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Photosynthesis has been an important field of research for more than a century, but the present concerns about energy, environment and climate have greatly intensified interest in and research on this topic. Research has progressed rapidly in recent years, and this book is an interesting read for an audience who is concerned with various ways of harnessing solar energy. Our understanding of photosynthesis can now be said to have reached encyclopedic dimensions. There have been, in the past, many good books at various levels. Our book is expected to fulfill the needs of advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate students in branches of biology, biochemistry, biophysics, and bioengineering because photosynthesis is the basis of future advances in producing more food, more biomass, more fuel, and new chemicals for our expanding global human population. Further, the basics of photosynthesis are and will be used not only for the above, but in artificial photosynthesis, an important emerging field where chemists, researchers and engineers of solar energy systems will play a major role.


Artificial Photosynthesis

Artificial Photosynthesis

Author:

Publisher: Academic Press

Published: 2016-06-13

Total Pages: 260

ISBN-13: 0128033258

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Artificial Photosynthesis, the latest edition in the Advances in Botanical Research series, which publishes in-depth and up-to-date reviews on a wide range of topics in the plant sciences features several reviews by recognized experts on all aspects of plant genetics, biochemistry, cell biology, molecular biology, physiology, and ecology. Publishes in-depth and up-to-date reviews on a wide range of topics in plant sciences Presents the latest information on artificial photosynthesis Features a wide range of reviews by recognized experts on all aspects of plant genetics, biochemistry, cell biology, molecular biology, physiology, and ecology


Book Synopsis Artificial Photosynthesis by :

Download or read book Artificial Photosynthesis written by and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2016-06-13 with total page 260 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Artificial Photosynthesis, the latest edition in the Advances in Botanical Research series, which publishes in-depth and up-to-date reviews on a wide range of topics in the plant sciences features several reviews by recognized experts on all aspects of plant genetics, biochemistry, cell biology, molecular biology, physiology, and ecology. Publishes in-depth and up-to-date reviews on a wide range of topics in plant sciences Presents the latest information on artificial photosynthesis Features a wide range of reviews by recognized experts on all aspects of plant genetics, biochemistry, cell biology, molecular biology, physiology, and ecology


Artificial Photosynthesis

Artificial Photosynthesis

Author: Mohammad Najafpour

Publisher: BoD – Books on Demand

Published: 2012-02-24

Total Pages: 302

ISBN-13: 9533079665

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Photosynthesis is one of the most important reactions on Earth, and it is a scientific field that is intrinsically interdisciplinary, with many research groups examining it. We could learn many strategies from photosynthesis and can apply these strategies in artificial photosynthesis. Artificial photosynthesis is a research field that attempts to replicate the natural process of photosynthesis. The goal of artificial photosynthesis is to use the energy of the sun to make different useful material or high-energy chemicals for energy production. This book is aimed at providing fundamental and applied aspects of artificial photosynthesis. In each section, important topics in the subject are discussed and reviewed by experts.


Book Synopsis Artificial Photosynthesis by : Mohammad Najafpour

Download or read book Artificial Photosynthesis written by Mohammad Najafpour and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2012-02-24 with total page 302 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Photosynthesis is one of the most important reactions on Earth, and it is a scientific field that is intrinsically interdisciplinary, with many research groups examining it. We could learn many strategies from photosynthesis and can apply these strategies in artificial photosynthesis. Artificial photosynthesis is a research field that attempts to replicate the natural process of photosynthesis. The goal of artificial photosynthesis is to use the energy of the sun to make different useful material or high-energy chemicals for energy production. This book is aimed at providing fundamental and applied aspects of artificial photosynthesis. In each section, important topics in the subject are discussed and reviewed by experts.


Artificial Photosynthesis

Artificial Photosynthesis

Author: Fouad Sabry

Publisher: One Billion Knowledgeable

Published: 2022-10-15

Total Pages: 374

ISBN-13:

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What Is Artificial Photosynthesis Synthetic photosynthesis is a chemical process that replicates the natural process of photosynthesis by transforming sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen. This process is also known as artificial photosynthesis. The process of catching and storing the energy from sunlight in the chemical bonds of a fuel is generally referred to as "artificial photosynthesis," and the word is usually used interchangeably with the phrase. Photocatalytic water splitting, often known as artificial photosynthesis, is the process of converting water into hydrogen and oxygen by the use of light. Another approach that has been researched to duplicate the natural process of carbon fixation is called light-driven carbon dioxide reduction. How You Will Benefit (I) Insights, and validations about the following topics: Chapter 1: Artificial photosynthesis Chapter 2: Hydrogen Chapter 3: Photohydrogen Chapter 4: Photoelectrochemical cell Chapter 5: Water splitting Chapter 6: Photocatalysis Chapter 7: Hydrogenase Chapter 8: Solar chemical Chapter 9: Microbial metabolism Chapter 10: Hydrogen production Chapter 11: Biohydrogen Chapter 12: Oxygen evolution Chapter 13: Dioxygen in biological reactions Chapter 14: Enzymatic biofuel cell Chapter 15: Daniel G. Nocera Chapter 16: Photocatalytic water splitting Chapter 17: Craig L. Hill Chapter 18: Solar fuel Chapter 19: Photogeochemistry Chapter 20: Water oxidation catalysis Chapter 21: Bionic Leaf (II) Answering the public top questions about artificial photosynthesis. (III) Real world examples for the usage of artificial photosynthesis in many fields. (IV) 17 appendices to explain, briefly, 266 emerging technologies in each industry to have 360-degree full understanding of artificial photosynthesis' technologies. Who This Book Is For Professionals, undergraduate and graduate students, enthusiasts, hobbyists, and those who want to go beyond basic knowledge or information for any kind of artificial photosynthesis.


Book Synopsis Artificial Photosynthesis by : Fouad Sabry

Download or read book Artificial Photosynthesis written by Fouad Sabry and published by One Billion Knowledgeable. This book was released on 2022-10-15 with total page 374 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: What Is Artificial Photosynthesis Synthetic photosynthesis is a chemical process that replicates the natural process of photosynthesis by transforming sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and oxygen. This process is also known as artificial photosynthesis. The process of catching and storing the energy from sunlight in the chemical bonds of a fuel is generally referred to as "artificial photosynthesis," and the word is usually used interchangeably with the phrase. Photocatalytic water splitting, often known as artificial photosynthesis, is the process of converting water into hydrogen and oxygen by the use of light. Another approach that has been researched to duplicate the natural process of carbon fixation is called light-driven carbon dioxide reduction. How You Will Benefit (I) Insights, and validations about the following topics: Chapter 1: Artificial photosynthesis Chapter 2: Hydrogen Chapter 3: Photohydrogen Chapter 4: Photoelectrochemical cell Chapter 5: Water splitting Chapter 6: Photocatalysis Chapter 7: Hydrogenase Chapter 8: Solar chemical Chapter 9: Microbial metabolism Chapter 10: Hydrogen production Chapter 11: Biohydrogen Chapter 12: Oxygen evolution Chapter 13: Dioxygen in biological reactions Chapter 14: Enzymatic biofuel cell Chapter 15: Daniel G. Nocera Chapter 16: Photocatalytic water splitting Chapter 17: Craig L. Hill Chapter 18: Solar fuel Chapter 19: Photogeochemistry Chapter 20: Water oxidation catalysis Chapter 21: Bionic Leaf (II) Answering the public top questions about artificial photosynthesis. (III) Real world examples for the usage of artificial photosynthesis in many fields. (IV) 17 appendices to explain, briefly, 266 emerging technologies in each industry to have 360-degree full understanding of artificial photosynthesis' technologies. Who This Book Is For Professionals, undergraduate and graduate students, enthusiasts, hobbyists, and those who want to go beyond basic knowledge or information for any kind of artificial photosynthesis.


Energy Conversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis

Energy Conversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis

Author: Katharina Brinkert

Publisher: Springer

Published: 2018-03-16

Total Pages: 127

ISBN-13: 331977980X

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This book discusses the basic principles and processes of solar energy conversion in natural photosynthesis. It then directly compares them with recent developments and concepts currently being pursued in artificial photosynthetic systems that are capable of utilizing sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into a chemical fuel. In this regard, the main focus is on photoelectrochemical cells, in which semiconducting photoanodes and -cathodes modified with (electro-) catalysts are used to oxidize water, produce hydrogen and reduce carbon dioxide in a monolithic device. The fundamental photochemical and photophysical processes involved are presented and discussed, along with protection mechanisms and efficiency calculations for both natural and artificial photosynthesis. In turn, key parameters that are crucial for the efficient operation of natural photosynthesis are identified. Lastly, their validity and applicability in the design of artificial solar-driven water-splitting systems are examined.


Book Synopsis Energy Conversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis by : Katharina Brinkert

Download or read book Energy Conversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis written by Katharina Brinkert and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-03-16 with total page 127 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book discusses the basic principles and processes of solar energy conversion in natural photosynthesis. It then directly compares them with recent developments and concepts currently being pursued in artificial photosynthetic systems that are capable of utilizing sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into a chemical fuel. In this regard, the main focus is on photoelectrochemical cells, in which semiconducting photoanodes and -cathodes modified with (electro-) catalysts are used to oxidize water, produce hydrogen and reduce carbon dioxide in a monolithic device. The fundamental photochemical and photophysical processes involved are presented and discussed, along with protection mechanisms and efficiency calculations for both natural and artificial photosynthesis. In turn, key parameters that are crucial for the efficient operation of natural photosynthesis are identified. Lastly, their validity and applicability in the design of artificial solar-driven water-splitting systems are examined.


Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis

Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis

Author: Reza Razeghifard

Publisher: John Wiley & Sons

Published: 2013-08-23

Total Pages: 372

ISBN-13: 1118659759

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This technical book explores current and future applications of solar power as an unlimited source of energy that earth receives every day. Photosynthetic organisms have learned to utilize this abundant source of energy by converting it into high-energy biochemical compounds. Inspired by the efficient conversion of solar energy into an electron flow, attempts have been made to construct artificial photosynthetic systems capable of establishing a charge separation state for generating electricity or driving chemical reactions. Another important aspect of photosynthesis is the CO2 fixation and the production of high energy compounds. Photosynthesis can produce biomass using solar energy while reducing the CO2 level in air. Biomass can be converted into biofuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol. Under certain conditions, photosynthetic organisms can also produce hydrogen gas which is one of the cleanest sources of energy.


Book Synopsis Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis by : Reza Razeghifard

Download or read book Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis written by Reza Razeghifard and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2013-08-23 with total page 372 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This technical book explores current and future applications of solar power as an unlimited source of energy that earth receives every day. Photosynthetic organisms have learned to utilize this abundant source of energy by converting it into high-energy biochemical compounds. Inspired by the efficient conversion of solar energy into an electron flow, attempts have been made to construct artificial photosynthetic systems capable of establishing a charge separation state for generating electricity or driving chemical reactions. Another important aspect of photosynthesis is the CO2 fixation and the production of high energy compounds. Photosynthesis can produce biomass using solar energy while reducing the CO2 level in air. Biomass can be converted into biofuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol. Under certain conditions, photosynthetic organisms can also produce hydrogen gas which is one of the cleanest sources of energy.


Metalloenzymes as Inspirational Electrocatalysts for Artificial Photosynthesis

Metalloenzymes as Inspirational Electrocatalysts for Artificial Photosynthesis

Author: Andreas S. J. L. Bachmeier

Publisher: Springer

Published: 2016-11-23

Total Pages: 252

ISBN-13: 3319470698

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This thesis describes a series of investigations designed to assess the value of metalloenzymes in systems for artificial and adapted photosynthesis. The research presented explores the interplay between inherent enzyme properties such as structure, rates and thermodynamics, and the properties of the semiconducting materials to which the enzyme is attached. Author, Andreas Bachmeier provides a comprehensive introduction to the interdisciplinary field of artificial photosynthesis, allowing the reader to grasp the latest approaches being investigated, from molecular systems to heterogeneous surface catalysis. Bachmeier’s work also uses metalloenzymes to highlight the importance of reversible catalysts in removing the burden of poor electrocatalytic rates and efficiencies which are common characteristics for most artificial photosynthesis systems. Overall, this thesis provides newcomers and students in the field with evidence that metalloenzymes can be used to establish new directions in artificial photosynthesis research.


Book Synopsis Metalloenzymes as Inspirational Electrocatalysts for Artificial Photosynthesis by : Andreas S. J. L. Bachmeier

Download or read book Metalloenzymes as Inspirational Electrocatalysts for Artificial Photosynthesis written by Andreas S. J. L. Bachmeier and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-11-23 with total page 252 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This thesis describes a series of investigations designed to assess the value of metalloenzymes in systems for artificial and adapted photosynthesis. The research presented explores the interplay between inherent enzyme properties such as structure, rates and thermodynamics, and the properties of the semiconducting materials to which the enzyme is attached. Author, Andreas Bachmeier provides a comprehensive introduction to the interdisciplinary field of artificial photosynthesis, allowing the reader to grasp the latest approaches being investigated, from molecular systems to heterogeneous surface catalysis. Bachmeier’s work also uses metalloenzymes to highlight the importance of reversible catalysts in removing the burden of poor electrocatalytic rates and efficiencies which are common characteristics for most artificial photosynthesis systems. Overall, this thesis provides newcomers and students in the field with evidence that metalloenzymes can be used to establish new directions in artificial photosynthesis research.


Current challenges in photosynthesis: From natural to artificial

Current challenges in photosynthesis: From natural to artificial

Author: Harvey J.M. Hou

Publisher: Frontiers E-books

Published: 2014-10-03

Total Pages: 103

ISBN-13: 2889192865

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Jules Verne (1828-1905), author of Around the World in Eighty Days (1873) and Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864), wrote in 1875 “I believe that water will one day be used as a fuel, because the hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used separately or together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and light. I therefore believe that, when coal (oil) deposits are oxidised, we will heat ourselves by means of water. Water is the fuel of the future” Solar energy is the only renewable energy source that has sufficient capacity for the global energy need; it is the only one that can address the issues of energy crisis and global climate change. A vast amount of solar energy is harvested and stored via photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria since over 3 billion years. Today, it is estimated that photosynthesis produces more than 100 billion tons of dry biomass annually, which would be equivalent to a hundred times the weight of the total human population on our planet at the present time, and equal to a global energy storage rate of about 100 TW. The solar power is the most abundant source of renewable energy, and oxygenic photosynthesis uses this energy to power the planet using the amazing reaction of water splitting. During water splitting, driven ultimately by sunlight, oxygen is released into the atmosphere, and this, along with food production by photosynthesis, supports life on our earth. The other product of water oxidation is “hydrogen” (proton and electron). This ‘hydrogen’ is not normally released into the atmosphere as hydrogen gas but combined with carbon dioxide to make high energy containing organic molecules. When we burn fuels we combine these organic molecules with oxygen. The design of new solar energy systems must adhere to the same principle as that of natural photosynthesis. For us to manipulate it to our benefit, it is imperative that we completely understand the basic processes of natural photosynthesis, and chemical conversion, such as light harvesting, excitation energy transfer, electron transfer, ion transport, and carbon fixation. Equally important, we must exploit application of this knowledge to the development of fully synthetic and/or hybrid devices. Understanding of photosynthetic reactions is not only a satisfying intellectual pursuit, but it is important for improving agricultural yields and for developing new solar technologies. Today, we have considerable knowledge of the working of photosynthesis and its photosystems, including the water oxidation reaction. Recent advances towards the understanding of the structure and the mechanism of the natural photosynthetic systems are being made at the molecular level. To mimic natural photosynthesis, inorganic chemists, organic chemists, electrochemists, material scientists, biochemists, biophysicists, and plant biologists must work together and only then significant progress in harnessing energy via “artificial photosynthesis” will be possible. This Research Topic provides recent advances of our understanding of photosynthesis, gives to our readers recent information on photosynthesis research, and summarizes the characteristics of the natural system from the standpoint of what we could learn from it to produce an efficient artificial system, i.e., from the natural to the artificial. This topic is intended to include exciting breakthroughs, possible limitations, and open questions in the frontiers in photosynthesis research.


Book Synopsis Current challenges in photosynthesis: From natural to artificial by : Harvey J.M. Hou

Download or read book Current challenges in photosynthesis: From natural to artificial written by Harvey J.M. Hou and published by Frontiers E-books. This book was released on 2014-10-03 with total page 103 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Jules Verne (1828-1905), author of Around the World in Eighty Days (1873) and Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864), wrote in 1875 “I believe that water will one day be used as a fuel, because the hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used separately or together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and light. I therefore believe that, when coal (oil) deposits are oxidised, we will heat ourselves by means of water. Water is the fuel of the future” Solar energy is the only renewable energy source that has sufficient capacity for the global energy need; it is the only one that can address the issues of energy crisis and global climate change. A vast amount of solar energy is harvested and stored via photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria since over 3 billion years. Today, it is estimated that photosynthesis produces more than 100 billion tons of dry biomass annually, which would be equivalent to a hundred times the weight of the total human population on our planet at the present time, and equal to a global energy storage rate of about 100 TW. The solar power is the most abundant source of renewable energy, and oxygenic photosynthesis uses this energy to power the planet using the amazing reaction of water splitting. During water splitting, driven ultimately by sunlight, oxygen is released into the atmosphere, and this, along with food production by photosynthesis, supports life on our earth. The other product of water oxidation is “hydrogen” (proton and electron). This ‘hydrogen’ is not normally released into the atmosphere as hydrogen gas but combined with carbon dioxide to make high energy containing organic molecules. When we burn fuels we combine these organic molecules with oxygen. The design of new solar energy systems must adhere to the same principle as that of natural photosynthesis. For us to manipulate it to our benefit, it is imperative that we completely understand the basic processes of natural photosynthesis, and chemical conversion, such as light harvesting, excitation energy transfer, electron transfer, ion transport, and carbon fixation. Equally important, we must exploit application of this knowledge to the development of fully synthetic and/or hybrid devices. Understanding of photosynthetic reactions is not only a satisfying intellectual pursuit, but it is important for improving agricultural yields and for developing new solar technologies. Today, we have considerable knowledge of the working of photosynthesis and its photosystems, including the water oxidation reaction. Recent advances towards the understanding of the structure and the mechanism of the natural photosynthetic systems are being made at the molecular level. To mimic natural photosynthesis, inorganic chemists, organic chemists, electrochemists, material scientists, biochemists, biophysicists, and plant biologists must work together and only then significant progress in harnessing energy via “artificial photosynthesis” will be possible. This Research Topic provides recent advances of our understanding of photosynthesis, gives to our readers recent information on photosynthesis research, and summarizes the characteristics of the natural system from the standpoint of what we could learn from it to produce an efficient artificial system, i.e., from the natural to the artificial. This topic is intended to include exciting breakthroughs, possible limitations, and open questions in the frontiers in photosynthesis research.