Language Attitudes in Hawick: An Empirical Study

Language Attitudes in Hawick: An Empirical Study

Author: Christian Dietz-Verrier

Publisher: diplom.de

Published: 2015-02-01

Total Pages: 98

ISBN-13: 3954898683

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Since the referendum on Scottish independence in September 2014, interest on national and local identity in Scotland has soared. Anticipating this interest, the present analysis focuses on two major aspects: the local vernacular as employed in Hawick/Scottish Borders and its usage in the school context at Hawick High School. The emphasis lies on the present linguistic situation in terms of language usage and attitudes of both pupils and teachers. The study supplies a brief social, linguistic, and historical outline of the Hawick community and Southern Scots. The main part of the thesis is subdivided into two sections. Firstly, the linguistic situation in Hawick in general is illustrated and extralinguistic variables are taken into account whenever they prove to be statistically significant. Secondly, language use and attitudes towards the vernacular in the school context are explored. The conclusion summarizes the most important results and might serve as an impetus for further dialect and attitude studies.


Book Synopsis Language Attitudes in Hawick: An Empirical Study by : Christian Dietz-Verrier

Download or read book Language Attitudes in Hawick: An Empirical Study written by Christian Dietz-Verrier and published by diplom.de. This book was released on 2015-02-01 with total page 98 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the referendum on Scottish independence in September 2014, interest on national and local identity in Scotland has soared. Anticipating this interest, the present analysis focuses on two major aspects: the local vernacular as employed in Hawick/Scottish Borders and its usage in the school context at Hawick High School. The emphasis lies on the present linguistic situation in terms of language usage and attitudes of both pupils and teachers. The study supplies a brief social, linguistic, and historical outline of the Hawick community and Southern Scots. The main part of the thesis is subdivided into two sections. Firstly, the linguistic situation in Hawick in general is illustrated and extralinguistic variables are taken into account whenever they prove to be statistically significant. Secondly, language use and attitudes towards the vernacular in the school context are explored. The conclusion summarizes the most important results and might serve as an impetus for further dialect and attitude studies.


Linguistic Situation and Language Attitudes in Hawick/Scottish Borders

Linguistic Situation and Language Attitudes in Hawick/Scottish Borders

Author: Christian Dietz-Verrier

Publisher:

Published: 2014-12-05

Total Pages: 100

ISBN-13: 9783656850250

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Examination Thesis from the year 2003 in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 1.0, University of Heidelberg (English Department), course: English Linguistics, language: English, comment: The thesis is a "1. Staatsexamensarbeit fur das hohere Lehramt" and is considered equivalent to a Master's thesis., abstract: The present analysis will focus on two major aspects: the local vernacular as employed in Hawick and its usage in the school context. The emphasis lies on the present linguistic situation in terms of language usage and attitudes of both pupils and teachers. The second chapter will supply a brief social, linguistic and historical outline of Hawick and Southern Scots. Subsequently, in the third chapter the methodology and aspects of language attitudes and their measurement will be described. The fourth chapter, being the main part of the study, is subdivided into two sections. Firstly, the linguistic situation in Hawick in general will be illustrated, and extralinguistic variables are taken into account whenever they prove to be statistically significant. The final part of the analysis, chapter 4.2, will clarify language use and attitudes towards the vernacular in the school context. The conclusion in chapter five will summarize the most important results and might also serve as an impetus for further dialect and attitude studies.


Book Synopsis Linguistic Situation and Language Attitudes in Hawick/Scottish Borders by : Christian Dietz-Verrier

Download or read book Linguistic Situation and Language Attitudes in Hawick/Scottish Borders written by Christian Dietz-Verrier and published by . This book was released on 2014-12-05 with total page 100 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Examination Thesis from the year 2003 in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 1.0, University of Heidelberg (English Department), course: English Linguistics, language: English, comment: The thesis is a "1. Staatsexamensarbeit fur das hohere Lehramt" and is considered equivalent to a Master's thesis., abstract: The present analysis will focus on two major aspects: the local vernacular as employed in Hawick and its usage in the school context. The emphasis lies on the present linguistic situation in terms of language usage and attitudes of both pupils and teachers. The second chapter will supply a brief social, linguistic and historical outline of Hawick and Southern Scots. Subsequently, in the third chapter the methodology and aspects of language attitudes and their measurement will be described. The fourth chapter, being the main part of the study, is subdivided into two sections. Firstly, the linguistic situation in Hawick in general will be illustrated, and extralinguistic variables are taken into account whenever they prove to be statistically significant. The final part of the analysis, chapter 4.2, will clarify language use and attitudes towards the vernacular in the school context. The conclusion in chapter five will summarize the most important results and might also serve as an impetus for further dialect and attitude studies.


Language Attitudes in Hawick: An Empirical Study

Language Attitudes in Hawick: An Empirical Study

Author: Christian Dietz-Verrier

Publisher: Anchor Academic Publishing (aap_verlag)

Published: 2015-02

Total Pages: 105

ISBN-13: 3954893681

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Since the referendum on Scottish independence in September 2014, interest on national and local identity in Scotland has soared. Anticipating this interest, the present analysis focuses on two major aspects: the local vernacular as employed in Hawick/Scottish Borders and its usage in the school context at Hawick High School. The emphasis lies on the present linguistic situation in terms of language usage and attitudes of both pupils and teachers. The study supplies a brief social, linguistic, and historical outline of the Hawick community and Southern Scots. The main part of the thesis is subdivided into two sections. Firstly, the linguistic situation in Hawick in general is illustrated and extralinguistic variables are taken into account whenever they prove to be statistically significant. Secondly, language use and attitudes towards the vernacular in the school context are explored. The conclusion summarizes the most important results and might serve as an impetus for further dialect and attitude studies.


Book Synopsis Language Attitudes in Hawick: An Empirical Study by : Christian Dietz-Verrier

Download or read book Language Attitudes in Hawick: An Empirical Study written by Christian Dietz-Verrier and published by Anchor Academic Publishing (aap_verlag). This book was released on 2015-02 with total page 105 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the referendum on Scottish independence in September 2014, interest on national and local identity in Scotland has soared. Anticipating this interest, the present analysis focuses on two major aspects: the local vernacular as employed in Hawick/Scottish Borders and its usage in the school context at Hawick High School. The emphasis lies on the present linguistic situation in terms of language usage and attitudes of both pupils and teachers. The study supplies a brief social, linguistic, and historical outline of the Hawick community and Southern Scots. The main part of the thesis is subdivided into two sections. Firstly, the linguistic situation in Hawick in general is illustrated and extralinguistic variables are taken into account whenever they prove to be statistically significant. Secondly, language use and attitudes towards the vernacular in the school context are explored. The conclusion summarizes the most important results and might serve as an impetus for further dialect and attitude studies.


Language Attitudes, Ethnic Identity and Dialect Use Across the Northern Ireland Border

Language Attitudes, Ethnic Identity and Dialect Use Across the Northern Ireland Border

Author: Simone Zwickl

Publisher:

Published: 2002

Total Pages: 318

ISBN-13:

DOWNLOAD EBOOK


Book Synopsis Language Attitudes, Ethnic Identity and Dialect Use Across the Northern Ireland Border by : Simone Zwickl

Download or read book Language Attitudes, Ethnic Identity and Dialect Use Across the Northern Ireland Border written by Simone Zwickl and published by . This book was released on 2002 with total page 318 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:


The Scottish Language Varieties and their Influences on the Scottish Identity

The Scottish Language Varieties and their Influences on the Scottish Identity

Author: Janina Böttcher

Publisher: GRIN Verlag

Published: 2009-07-08

Total Pages: 15

ISBN-13: 3640368908

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Seminar paper from the year 2005 in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 1,0, University of Potsdam (Institut für Anglistik/ Amerikanistik), course: Scots and the other languages of Scotland, language: English, abstract: When people think of Scotland the images they have in mind are usually very restricted. Most of us combine the country with the myth of Nessie, the Clans and their tartan culture, the good whisky, the Highlands and the famous Highland Games. All these existing images of Scotland make up a large part of the country’s culture but Scotland is more than that. Only the minority of us might think of Scotland as a country with a long and problematic history and just some are regarding the fact that it has still not gained its entire independence. It is a country full of contrasts and difficulties which you cannot only become aware of when you consider the geographical situation but also the social, political and cultural circumstances. A today’s problem resulting from Scotland’s long history is the question of Scottish identity, and accompanied by that the language problem. Language is an element of culture and people express through their language and speaking behaviour identities and attitudes. In Scotland the situation is quite difficult. As part of the United Kingdom the official language spoken in Scotland is Standard English but depending on the area you are visiting, you can also find speakers of other varieties such as Scots or Gaelic or even dialects. However, these varieties are said to be non- standardised languages and therefore are not officially used in Scotland. That leads to the problem that speakers of these varieties have the feeling not to be part of the speaker community and consequently they cannot identify themselves with these. The issue that now has to be surveyed, is the question what types of languages are existing in Scotland and how do these language varieties influence the identities and attitudes of Scots. For that reason I have planned to concentrate on one of Scotland’s languages and would like to write my paper about the Scots and their tongue. In the first part I will deal with the Scots, their nation and their development. The main focus in my work will be the re-flection on Modern Scots, the problematic of the Scots’ status and its varieties. I am going to discuss if it is a distinct language, an accent or a dialect and will also look at the different varieties of Scots inside and outside of Scotland to give an overview of existing forms.


Book Synopsis The Scottish Language Varieties and their Influences on the Scottish Identity by : Janina Böttcher

Download or read book The Scottish Language Varieties and their Influences on the Scottish Identity written by Janina Böttcher and published by GRIN Verlag. This book was released on 2009-07-08 with total page 15 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Seminar paper from the year 2005 in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 1,0, University of Potsdam (Institut für Anglistik/ Amerikanistik), course: Scots and the other languages of Scotland, language: English, abstract: When people think of Scotland the images they have in mind are usually very restricted. Most of us combine the country with the myth of Nessie, the Clans and their tartan culture, the good whisky, the Highlands and the famous Highland Games. All these existing images of Scotland make up a large part of the country’s culture but Scotland is more than that. Only the minority of us might think of Scotland as a country with a long and problematic history and just some are regarding the fact that it has still not gained its entire independence. It is a country full of contrasts and difficulties which you cannot only become aware of when you consider the geographical situation but also the social, political and cultural circumstances. A today’s problem resulting from Scotland’s long history is the question of Scottish identity, and accompanied by that the language problem. Language is an element of culture and people express through their language and speaking behaviour identities and attitudes. In Scotland the situation is quite difficult. As part of the United Kingdom the official language spoken in Scotland is Standard English but depending on the area you are visiting, you can also find speakers of other varieties such as Scots or Gaelic or even dialects. However, these varieties are said to be non- standardised languages and therefore are not officially used in Scotland. That leads to the problem that speakers of these varieties have the feeling not to be part of the speaker community and consequently they cannot identify themselves with these. The issue that now has to be surveyed, is the question what types of languages are existing in Scotland and how do these language varieties influence the identities and attitudes of Scots. For that reason I have planned to concentrate on one of Scotland’s languages and would like to write my paper about the Scots and their tongue. In the first part I will deal with the Scots, their nation and their development. The main focus in my work will be the re-flection on Modern Scots, the problematic of the Scots’ status and its varieties. I am going to discuss if it is a distinct language, an accent or a dialect and will also look at the different varieties of Scots inside and outside of Scotland to give an overview of existing forms.


Investigating Language Attitudes

Investigating Language Attitudes

Author: Peter Garrett

Publisher:

Published: 2003

Total Pages: 272

ISBN-13:

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

A comprehensive analysis of attitudes to language, in particular to the English language in Wales, of the relationship between social change and attitudes, the social meanings of dialect, ethnicity and performance, based on extensive research and data collection in secondary schools across Wales. 8 diagrams and 6 maps. First published in July 2003.


Book Synopsis Investigating Language Attitudes by : Peter Garrett

Download or read book Investigating Language Attitudes written by Peter Garrett and published by . This book was released on 2003 with total page 272 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A comprehensive analysis of attitudes to language, in particular to the English language in Wales, of the relationship between social change and attitudes, the social meanings of dialect, ethnicity and performance, based on extensive research and data collection in secondary schools across Wales. 8 diagrams and 6 maps. First published in July 2003.


Origins and Development of Language Attitudes Towards the Irish Language in the Republic of Ireland

Origins and Development of Language Attitudes Towards the Irish Language in the Republic of Ireland

Author: Sandra Beyer

Publisher: GRIN Verlag

Published: 2010-02

Total Pages: 81

ISBN-13: 3640537165

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Master's Thesis from the year 2005 in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 1,3, Birkbeck, University of London, language: English, abstract: Abstract Given the existing relations between language attitudes and linguistic competence, and places in the bilingual context of the Republic of Ireland (Irish/English) the goal of the present study is twofold: first, attitudes towards the Irish language are described, and second, variables that can explain such attitudes are studied. These include: family language, linguistic proficiency in Irish, residence (Gaeltacht vs. Galltacht), cultural identity, socio-educational background and gender. In addition, attitudes towards Irish and English will be compared. A questionnaire that had been successfully used in other areas was adapted and used in a sample of 62 adult speakers of Irish, about half of them (N=27) coming from traditionally Irish-speaking areas, or Gaeltacht, and the other half (N=35) coming from English-speaking areas, or Galltacht. 33 females and 29 males took part in the study. The mean age was M=35.5, SD=10.35. All participants had undergone secondary education in the Republic of Ireland. Globally, results show neutral attitudes towards Irish and somewhat unfavourable attitudes towards English. The information of the participants' attitudes to the Irish language proved not to be correlated with any of the independent variables. Possible intervening variables, unaccounted for in the questionnaire design, were suspected to be responsible for shaping the respondents' Irish language attitudes. An open-ended question in the survey revealed great dissatisfaction over the way Irish is taught in schools as well as lament over the lack of opportunities to use the language in an everyday context.


Book Synopsis Origins and Development of Language Attitudes Towards the Irish Language in the Republic of Ireland by : Sandra Beyer

Download or read book Origins and Development of Language Attitudes Towards the Irish Language in the Republic of Ireland written by Sandra Beyer and published by GRIN Verlag. This book was released on 2010-02 with total page 81 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Master's Thesis from the year 2005 in the subject English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics, grade: 1,3, Birkbeck, University of London, language: English, abstract: Abstract Given the existing relations between language attitudes and linguistic competence, and places in the bilingual context of the Republic of Ireland (Irish/English) the goal of the present study is twofold: first, attitudes towards the Irish language are described, and second, variables that can explain such attitudes are studied. These include: family language, linguistic proficiency in Irish, residence (Gaeltacht vs. Galltacht), cultural identity, socio-educational background and gender. In addition, attitudes towards Irish and English will be compared. A questionnaire that had been successfully used in other areas was adapted and used in a sample of 62 adult speakers of Irish, about half of them (N=27) coming from traditionally Irish-speaking areas, or Gaeltacht, and the other half (N=35) coming from English-speaking areas, or Galltacht. 33 females and 29 males took part in the study. The mean age was M=35.5, SD=10.35. All participants had undergone secondary education in the Republic of Ireland. Globally, results show neutral attitudes towards Irish and somewhat unfavourable attitudes towards English. The information of the participants' attitudes to the Irish language proved not to be correlated with any of the independent variables. Possible intervening variables, unaccounted for in the questionnaire design, were suspected to be responsible for shaping the respondents' Irish language attitudes. An open-ended question in the survey revealed great dissatisfaction over the way Irish is taught in schools as well as lament over the lack of opportunities to use the language in an everyday context.


Nations of Nothing But Poetry

Nations of Nothing But Poetry

Author: Matthew Hart

Publisher: Oxford University Press

Published: 2010-04-22

Total Pages: 256

ISBN-13: 0190452900

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Modernism is typically associated with novelty and urbanity. So what happens when poets identify small communities and local languages with the spirit of transnational modernity? Are vernacular poetries inherently provincial or implicitly xenophobic? How did modernist poets use vernacular language to re-imagine the relations between people, their languages, and the communities in which they live? Nations of Nothing But Poetry answers these questions through case studies of British, Caribbean, and American poetries from the 1920s through the 1990s. With a combination of fresh insights and attentive close readings, Matthew Hart presents a new theory of a "synthetic vernacular"-writing that explores the aesthetic and ideological tensions within modernism's dual commitments to the local and the global. The result is an invigorating contribution to the field of transnational modernist studies. Chapters focus on a mixture of canonical and non-canonical writers, combining new literary histories--such as the story of how Melvin B. Tolson, while a resident of Oklahoma, was appointed Poet Laureate of Liberia--with analyses of poems by Gertrude Stein, W. H. Auden, Ezra Pound, and T. S. Eliot. More broadly, the book reveals how the language of modernist poetry was shaped by the incompletely globalized nature of a world in which the nation-state continued to be a primary mediator of cultural and political identity, even as its authority was challenged as never before. Through deft juxtaposition, Hart develops a new interpretation of modernist poetry in English-one that disrupts the critical opposition between nationalism and the transnational, paving the way for a political history of modernist cosmopolitanism.


Book Synopsis Nations of Nothing But Poetry by : Matthew Hart

Download or read book Nations of Nothing But Poetry written by Matthew Hart and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2010-04-22 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Modernism is typically associated with novelty and urbanity. So what happens when poets identify small communities and local languages with the spirit of transnational modernity? Are vernacular poetries inherently provincial or implicitly xenophobic? How did modernist poets use vernacular language to re-imagine the relations between people, their languages, and the communities in which they live? Nations of Nothing But Poetry answers these questions through case studies of British, Caribbean, and American poetries from the 1920s through the 1990s. With a combination of fresh insights and attentive close readings, Matthew Hart presents a new theory of a "synthetic vernacular"-writing that explores the aesthetic and ideological tensions within modernism's dual commitments to the local and the global. The result is an invigorating contribution to the field of transnational modernist studies. Chapters focus on a mixture of canonical and non-canonical writers, combining new literary histories--such as the story of how Melvin B. Tolson, while a resident of Oklahoma, was appointed Poet Laureate of Liberia--with analyses of poems by Gertrude Stein, W. H. Auden, Ezra Pound, and T. S. Eliot. More broadly, the book reveals how the language of modernist poetry was shaped by the incompletely globalized nature of a world in which the nation-state continued to be a primary mediator of cultural and political identity, even as its authority was challenged as never before. Through deft juxtaposition, Hart develops a new interpretation of modernist poetry in English-one that disrupts the critical opposition between nationalism and the transnational, paving the way for a political history of modernist cosmopolitanism.


A Study Of The Relevance Of Scientific Skills And Attitudes To Market Women

A Study Of The Relevance Of Scientific Skills And Attitudes To Market Women

Author: Adediran Adejuwon

Publisher: GRIN Verlag

Published: 2011-09

Total Pages: 85

ISBN-13: 3656013047

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

Bachelor Thesis from the year 2009 in the subject Sociology - Gender Studies, grade: 1.0, University of Lagos, language: English, abstract: We are daily confronted by science and technology, be it in the home, office, workplace or farm (Ameh 1991). Science offers a lot of possibilities for experimentation which helps to learn about and interpret the environment. It is a powerful tool for the fulfillment of the human potential of all. Scientific attitudes embrace all scientific processes of gathering information with no subjectivity, skepticism or prejudice for the advancement of science. These processes can only be objectively and confidently carried out by skillful individuals. A skill, in this sense, means a proficiency process of carrying out a task with ease, precision and speed (Busari 1995). Various literature were reviewed on the relevance of science with the view of comparing the ideas, opinions, suggestions and assertions of experts under the following areas: scientific literacy, science process skills, scientific attitude, the environment, life coping skills and exposure to science. The research work makes an attempt to determine the level of scientific skills and attitude inherent in the practices of the market women. The research was a survey research where three research questions were formulated and addressed. The work focused on twenty market women gotten through stratified random sampling of three markets in Lagos State. Data were collected using interview and observation schedule and analyze using simple percentages. Consequent upon the findings of the data collected, the study shows that truly there are scientific skills and attitudes inherent in the activities of the market women such as communication skills, use of measuring devices skills, organizational skills, negotiation and adequacy skills, advocacy skills, personal skills such as time management, anger management, teamwork and cooperation. All these shows the relevance of scientific skill


Book Synopsis A Study Of The Relevance Of Scientific Skills And Attitudes To Market Women by : Adediran Adejuwon

Download or read book A Study Of The Relevance Of Scientific Skills And Attitudes To Market Women written by Adediran Adejuwon and published by GRIN Verlag. This book was released on 2011-09 with total page 85 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Bachelor Thesis from the year 2009 in the subject Sociology - Gender Studies, grade: 1.0, University of Lagos, language: English, abstract: We are daily confronted by science and technology, be it in the home, office, workplace or farm (Ameh 1991). Science offers a lot of possibilities for experimentation which helps to learn about and interpret the environment. It is a powerful tool for the fulfillment of the human potential of all. Scientific attitudes embrace all scientific processes of gathering information with no subjectivity, skepticism or prejudice for the advancement of science. These processes can only be objectively and confidently carried out by skillful individuals. A skill, in this sense, means a proficiency process of carrying out a task with ease, precision and speed (Busari 1995). Various literature were reviewed on the relevance of science with the view of comparing the ideas, opinions, suggestions and assertions of experts under the following areas: scientific literacy, science process skills, scientific attitude, the environment, life coping skills and exposure to science. The research work makes an attempt to determine the level of scientific skills and attitude inherent in the practices of the market women. The research was a survey research where three research questions were formulated and addressed. The work focused on twenty market women gotten through stratified random sampling of three markets in Lagos State. Data were collected using interview and observation schedule and analyze using simple percentages. Consequent upon the findings of the data collected, the study shows that truly there are scientific skills and attitudes inherent in the activities of the market women such as communication skills, use of measuring devices skills, organizational skills, negotiation and adequacy skills, advocacy skills, personal skills such as time management, anger management, teamwork and cooperation. All these shows the relevance of scientific skill


Variation and Change in Spoken and Written Discourse

Variation and Change in Spoken and Written Discourse

Author: Julia Bamford

Publisher: John Benjamins Publishing

Published: 2013-10-31

Total Pages: 306

ISBN-13: 9027271216

DOWNLOAD EBOOK

This book focuses on aspects of variation and change in language use in spoken and written discourse on the basis of corpus analyses, providing new descriptive insights, and new methods of utilising small specialized corpora for the description of language variation and change. The sixteen contributions included in this volume represent a variety of diverse views and approaches, but all share the common goal of throwing light on a crucial dimension of discourse: the dialogic interactivity between the spoken and written. Their foci range from papers addressing general issues related to corpus analysis of spoken dialogue to papers focusing on specific cases employing a variety of analytical tools, including qualitative and quantitative analysis of small and large corpora. The present volume constitutes a highly valuable tool for applied linguists and discourse analysts as well as for students, instructors and language teachers.


Book Synopsis Variation and Change in Spoken and Written Discourse by : Julia Bamford

Download or read book Variation and Change in Spoken and Written Discourse written by Julia Bamford and published by John Benjamins Publishing. This book was released on 2013-10-31 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book focuses on aspects of variation and change in language use in spoken and written discourse on the basis of corpus analyses, providing new descriptive insights, and new methods of utilising small specialized corpora for the description of language variation and change. The sixteen contributions included in this volume represent a variety of diverse views and approaches, but all share the common goal of throwing light on a crucial dimension of discourse: the dialogic interactivity between the spoken and written. Their foci range from papers addressing general issues related to corpus analysis of spoken dialogue to papers focusing on specific cases employing a variety of analytical tools, including qualitative and quantitative analysis of small and large corpora. The present volume constitutes a highly valuable tool for applied linguists and discourse analysts as well as for students, instructors and language teachers.