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Author: R. B. Smarta
Publisher:
Published: 1999-01-01
Total Pages: 294
ISBN-13: 9788170368403
DOWNLOAD EBOOKDownload or read book Revitalizing the Pharmaceutical Business written by R. B. Smarta and published by . This book was released on 1999-01-01 with total page 294 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Author: John Lidstone
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Published: 2017-07-05
Total Pages: 169
ISBN-13: 1351919768
DOWNLOAD EBOOKMarketing in the pharmaceutical and healthcare sector requires a particular set of skills; its intricacies mean planning is an essential prerequisite. The marketing planning system described in this book has been designed to enable marketing and product executives to produce a plan which serves as a dynamic management tool which will help them to get from where they are now to where they want to be next year and thereafter. Now in its second edition, this bestselling book has become the standard text for all product managers, marketing managers and directors working in this demanding industry. John Lidstone and Janice MacLennan have updated the book to embrace best current practice. A new orientation to external analysis and a reworking of the application of SWOT analysis, along with fresh material on sales forecasting and strategy implementation, bring the book up to date with current thinking and industry trends. Marketing Planning for the Pharmaceutical Industry is based on real life experience built up over many years. Each chapter takes the reader through the sequential stages of planning so that by the end they will be able to produce a practical plan ready for implementation. It is the only book of this type which tailors marketing to those working in the sector and as such is a unique, invaluable and indispensable resource.
Download or read book Marketing Planning for the Pharmaceutical Industry written by John Lidstone and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2017-07-05 with total page 169 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Marketing in the pharmaceutical and healthcare sector requires a particular set of skills; its intricacies mean planning is an essential prerequisite. The marketing planning system described in this book has been designed to enable marketing and product executives to produce a plan which serves as a dynamic management tool which will help them to get from where they are now to where they want to be next year and thereafter. Now in its second edition, this bestselling book has become the standard text for all product managers, marketing managers and directors working in this demanding industry. John Lidstone and Janice MacLennan have updated the book to embrace best current practice. A new orientation to external analysis and a reworking of the application of SWOT analysis, along with fresh material on sales forecasting and strategy implementation, bring the book up to date with current thinking and industry trends. Marketing Planning for the Pharmaceutical Industry is based on real life experience built up over many years. Each chapter takes the reader through the sequential stages of planning so that by the end they will be able to produce a practical plan ready for implementation. It is the only book of this type which tailors marketing to those working in the sector and as such is a unique, invaluable and indispensable resource.
Author: Institute of Medicine
Publisher: National Academies Press
Published: 1991-02-01
Total Pages: 225
ISBN-13: 030904491X
DOWNLOAD EBOOKAmericans praise medical technology for saving lives and improving health. Yet, new technology is often cited as a key factor in skyrocketing medical costs. This volume, second in the Medical Innovation at the Crossroads series, examines how economic incentives for innovation are changing and what that means for the future of health care. Up-to-date with a wide variety of examples and case studies, this book explores how payment, patent, and regulatory policiesâ€"as well as the involvement of numerous government agenciesâ€"affect the introduction and use of new pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and surgical procedures. The volume also includes detailed comparisons of policies and patterns of technological innovation in Western Europe and Japan. This fact-filled and practical book will be of interest to economists, policymakers, health administrators, health care practitioners, and the concerned public.
Download or read book The Changing Economics of Medical Technology written by Institute of Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 1991-02-01 with total page 225 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Americans praise medical technology for saving lives and improving health. Yet, new technology is often cited as a key factor in skyrocketing medical costs. This volume, second in the Medical Innovation at the Crossroads series, examines how economic incentives for innovation are changing and what that means for the future of health care. Up-to-date with a wide variety of examples and case studies, this book explores how payment, patent, and regulatory policiesâ€"as well as the involvement of numerous government agenciesâ€"affect the introduction and use of new pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and surgical procedures. The volume also includes detailed comparisons of policies and patterns of technological innovation in Western Europe and Japan. This fact-filled and practical book will be of interest to economists, policymakers, health administrators, health care practitioners, and the concerned public.
Author: Joey Reiman
Publisher: Rowman & Littlefield
Published: 2001
Total Pages: 209
ISBN-13: 1563524694
DOWNLOAD EBOOKCan one idea be worth a million dollars? Of course. But what is a million-dollar idea worth if it is poorly executed? In this ground-breaking, paradigm-shifting book, creative genius Joey Reiman presents a convincing argument for the value of raw ideas.
Download or read book Thinking for a Living written by Joey Reiman and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2001 with total page 209 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Can one idea be worth a million dollars? Of course. But what is a million-dollar idea worth if it is poorly executed? In this ground-breaking, paradigm-shifting book, creative genius Joey Reiman presents a convincing argument for the value of raw ideas.
Author: ISLAMIC FINANCE RESEARCH
Publisher: ISLAMIC FINANCE RESEARCH
Published:
Total Pages: 20
ISBN-13:
DOWNLOAD EBOOKWhy include APIs industries stock in your portfolio? Active Pharma Ingredients (APIs) are the raw materials that go into manufacturing medicines. China is the world's largest API manufacturer, followed by the US and India. However, the gap between them is a little. The significant advantage for India is the potential growth opportunity. India's API industry estimates Rs.79,800 crore as of 2020, but it is likely to grow at 8.57% CAGR over the next five years to Rs.131,000 crore by 2026. On the other hand, the Chinese API industry will grow by just 6.5% in the same period. These refer to the merchant API business, which is non-exclusive. When is the best time to put money into this industry? In recent times, three factors shifted the game in favour of Indian API manufacturers: Most countries believe that China did play a role in suppressing details of the pandemic and hence would prefer to diversify from their overt API dependence on China. The Chinese government has clamped down heavily on environmental lapses, and the API industry has come in for a lot of flak, disrupting supply chains. That opened a new window of opportunity for India. To promote APIs, the government of India also offered Product linked incentives (PLI) scheme. Here is a look at some critical API names in India and thematic investment ideas. How are APIs companies regulated? Heralding these regulatory changes, the CDSCO claimed8 that it had initiated various measures in the last two years to streamline the regulatory procedures by relaxing, rationalizing, and modifying the existing provisions of the DCR, which has resulted in accelerating the regulatory approvals without compromising the safety, quality, and performance of medical products. A separate, simplified, and extensive New Drugs and Clinical Trials (CT) Rules under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 (DCA) that will codify all amendments to date is in the planning stages. In its efforts toward digitization and implementation of the e-governance scheme, MoH launched its online licensing system called SUGAM, nine which remains continuously expanded in a phased manner, giving impetus to the government's "Make in India" initiative; emphasis remains placed on ensuring the safety, efficacy, and quality of drugs manufactured in India by requiring the submission of stable data and compliance with GMP/GLP practices. Additionally, there are deliberations for plugging the gaps in a drug sale, including internet sales10 and OTCs. What is the future of this industry? The pharmaceutical industry has recently entered unexplored territory with pending approvals of blockbuster or generic drugs whose production and supply can only run seamlessly based on APIs. These biologically active substances remain inserted into excipients, which serve as the vehicle for delivery to the patient. The formulation of APIs remains contracted to develop countries due to their low production costs and ability to scale production according to customization. The global API market will reach a purported valuation of $215,125.4 million by 2023. Al Zayd Corp www.alzaydcorp.com Islamic Finance Research www.ifr.world Self-Published Research Magazine Author: Zayd Iqbal Haji Copyright © 2020 Al Zayd Corp | Islamic Finance Research All Rights Reserved. Disclaimer: This investment research report is not an acquisition recommendation and is not misinterpreted for investment consultation as it is a piece of information about the above company. All design content is copyrighted, and references are from the company's annual and RBI reports. Note: Analysts certify that all views expressed in the magazine accurately reflect the theories from the company's annual reports. Moreover, not a part of the investment recommendation or will not be directly or indirectly related to specific recommendations or views expressed in this report.
Download or read book Reviving India's API industry | Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) written by ISLAMIC FINANCE RESEARCH and published by ISLAMIC FINANCE RESEARCH. This book was released on with total page 20 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Why include APIs industries stock in your portfolio? Active Pharma Ingredients (APIs) are the raw materials that go into manufacturing medicines. China is the world's largest API manufacturer, followed by the US and India. However, the gap between them is a little. The significant advantage for India is the potential growth opportunity. India's API industry estimates Rs.79,800 crore as of 2020, but it is likely to grow at 8.57% CAGR over the next five years to Rs.131,000 crore by 2026. On the other hand, the Chinese API industry will grow by just 6.5% in the same period. These refer to the merchant API business, which is non-exclusive. When is the best time to put money into this industry? In recent times, three factors shifted the game in favour of Indian API manufacturers: Most countries believe that China did play a role in suppressing details of the pandemic and hence would prefer to diversify from their overt API dependence on China. The Chinese government has clamped down heavily on environmental lapses, and the API industry has come in for a lot of flak, disrupting supply chains. That opened a new window of opportunity for India. To promote APIs, the government of India also offered Product linked incentives (PLI) scheme. Here is a look at some critical API names in India and thematic investment ideas. How are APIs companies regulated? Heralding these regulatory changes, the CDSCO claimed8 that it had initiated various measures in the last two years to streamline the regulatory procedures by relaxing, rationalizing, and modifying the existing provisions of the DCR, which has resulted in accelerating the regulatory approvals without compromising the safety, quality, and performance of medical products. A separate, simplified, and extensive New Drugs and Clinical Trials (CT) Rules under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 (DCA) that will codify all amendments to date is in the planning stages. In its efforts toward digitization and implementation of the e-governance scheme, MoH launched its online licensing system called SUGAM, nine which remains continuously expanded in a phased manner, giving impetus to the government's "Make in India" initiative; emphasis remains placed on ensuring the safety, efficacy, and quality of drugs manufactured in India by requiring the submission of stable data and compliance with GMP/GLP practices. Additionally, there are deliberations for plugging the gaps in a drug sale, including internet sales10 and OTCs. What is the future of this industry? The pharmaceutical industry has recently entered unexplored territory with pending approvals of blockbuster or generic drugs whose production and supply can only run seamlessly based on APIs. These biologically active substances remain inserted into excipients, which serve as the vehicle for delivery to the patient. The formulation of APIs remains contracted to develop countries due to their low production costs and ability to scale production according to customization. The global API market will reach a purported valuation of $215,125.4 million by 2023. Al Zayd Corp www.alzaydcorp.com Islamic Finance Research www.ifr.world Self-Published Research Magazine Author: Zayd Iqbal Haji Copyright © 2020 Al Zayd Corp | Islamic Finance Research All Rights Reserved. Disclaimer: This investment research report is not an acquisition recommendation and is not misinterpreted for investment consultation as it is a piece of information about the above company. All design content is copyrighted, and references are from the company's annual and RBI reports. Note: Analysts certify that all views expressed in the magazine accurately reflect the theories from the company's annual reports. Moreover, not a part of the investment recommendation or will not be directly or indirectly related to specific recommendations or views expressed in this report.
Author: Joan Fitzgerald
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2002-03-19
Total Pages: 281
ISBN-13: 1452264279
DOWNLOAD EBOOKIn Economic Revitalization: Cases and Strategies for City and Suburb Fitzgerald and Leigh answer the need for a text that incorporates social justice and sustainability into how we think about and practice economic development. It is one of the first to talk about how revitalization strategies are implemented in both cities and suburbs, particularly inner-ring suburbs that are experiencing decline previously associated only with inner-city neighborhoods. After setting the context with a brief history of economic development practice and its shortcomings, Fitzgerald and Leigh focus on six economic development strategies: sectoral strategies, Brownfield redevelopment, industrial retention, commercial revitalization, industrial and office property reuse, and workforce development.
Download or read book Economic Revitalization written by Joan Fitzgerald and published by SAGE Publications. This book was released on 2002-03-19 with total page 281 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In Economic Revitalization: Cases and Strategies for City and Suburb Fitzgerald and Leigh answer the need for a text that incorporates social justice and sustainability into how we think about and practice economic development. It is one of the first to talk about how revitalization strategies are implemented in both cities and suburbs, particularly inner-ring suburbs that are experiencing decline previously associated only with inner-city neighborhoods. After setting the context with a brief history of economic development practice and its shortcomings, Fitzgerald and Leigh focus on six economic development strategies: sectoral strategies, Brownfield redevelopment, industrial retention, commercial revitalization, industrial and office property reuse, and workforce development.
Author: Mithun Nandy
Publisher: Springer Nature
Published: 2021-12-03
Total Pages: 224
ISBN-13: 981166921X
DOWNLOAD EBOOKThe book provides insight into different research and development (R&D) activities performed by Indian pharmaceutical companies. It describes how R&D activities have evolved in the last three decades on Indian soil. The book discusses how emerging economy like India has become the ‘Pharmacy of the World’ and how reputed and research-centric Indian drug manufacturing companies are aligning their business model by incepting the business idea as ‘Innovate in India and Serve to the World’. Subsequently, through successful implementation of the R&D activities and endeavors, Indian pharmaceutical companies have been witnessing different drug discoveries and innovations which have been performed in an indigenous manner. Contemporary marketing strategies adopted by the research-centric Indian pharmaceutical companies for selling innovative drug products across the globe, attaining global competitiveness, and maintaining a seamless supply chain through export initiatives have also been discussed in this book. Finally, the book figures out the relationship between R&D and financial performance with the help of panel data analysis (PDA), an econometric approach.
Download or read book Relationship between R&D and Financial Performance in Indian Pharmaceutical Industry written by Mithun Nandy and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-12-03 with total page 224 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book provides insight into different research and development (R&D) activities performed by Indian pharmaceutical companies. It describes how R&D activities have evolved in the last three decades on Indian soil. The book discusses how emerging economy like India has become the ‘Pharmacy of the World’ and how reputed and research-centric Indian drug manufacturing companies are aligning their business model by incepting the business idea as ‘Innovate in India and Serve to the World’. Subsequently, through successful implementation of the R&D activities and endeavors, Indian pharmaceutical companies have been witnessing different drug discoveries and innovations which have been performed in an indigenous manner. Contemporary marketing strategies adopted by the research-centric Indian pharmaceutical companies for selling innovative drug products across the globe, attaining global competitiveness, and maintaining a seamless supply chain through export initiatives have also been discussed in this book. Finally, the book figures out the relationship between R&D and financial performance with the help of panel data analysis (PDA), an econometric approach.
Author: Arthur G. Cook
Publisher: CRC Press
Published: 2016-03-03
Total Pages: 234
ISBN-13: 1317134109
DOWNLOAD EBOOKForecasting for the Pharmaceutical Industry is a definitive guide for forecasters as well as the multitude of decision makers and executives who rely on forecasts in their decision making. In virtually every decision, a pharmaceutical executive considers some type of forecast. This process of predicting the future is crucial to many aspects of the company - from next month's production schedule, to market estimates for drugs in the next decade. The pharmaceutical forecaster needs to strike a delicate balance between over-engineering the forecast - including rafts of data and complex ’black box’ equations that few stakeholders understand and even fewer buy into - and an overly simplistic approach that relies too heavily on anecdotal information and opinion. Arthur G. Cook's highly pragmatic guide explains the basis of a successful balanced forecast for products in development as well as currently marketed products. The author explores the pharmaceutical forecasting process; the varied tools and methods for new product and in-market forecasting; how they can be used to communicate market dynamics to the various stakeholders; and the strengths and weaknesses of different forecast approaches. The text is liberally illustrated with tables, diagrams and examples. The final extended case study provides the reader with an opportunity to test out their knowledge. The second edition has been updated throughout and includes a brand new chapter focusing on specialized topics such as forecasting for orphan drugs and biosimilars.
Download or read book Forecasting for the Pharmaceutical Industry written by Arthur G. Cook and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2016-03-03 with total page 234 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Forecasting for the Pharmaceutical Industry is a definitive guide for forecasters as well as the multitude of decision makers and executives who rely on forecasts in their decision making. In virtually every decision, a pharmaceutical executive considers some type of forecast. This process of predicting the future is crucial to many aspects of the company - from next month's production schedule, to market estimates for drugs in the next decade. The pharmaceutical forecaster needs to strike a delicate balance between over-engineering the forecast - including rafts of data and complex ’black box’ equations that few stakeholders understand and even fewer buy into - and an overly simplistic approach that relies too heavily on anecdotal information and opinion. Arthur G. Cook's highly pragmatic guide explains the basis of a successful balanced forecast for products in development as well as currently marketed products. The author explores the pharmaceutical forecasting process; the varied tools and methods for new product and in-market forecasting; how they can be used to communicate market dynamics to the various stakeholders; and the strengths and weaknesses of different forecast approaches. The text is liberally illustrated with tables, diagrams and examples. The final extended case study provides the reader with an opportunity to test out their knowledge. The second edition has been updated throughout and includes a brand new chapter focusing on specialized topics such as forecasting for orphan drugs and biosimilars.
Author: Raja B Smarta
Publisher: Pharmamed Press
Published: 2019-10-28
Total Pages: 392
ISBN-13: 9789386819772
DOWNLOAD EBOOKThe pharmaceutical industry today is faced with significant challenges owing to the volatile and competitive business environment. For both survival and growth, it is imperative for pharmaceutical organizations to rethink their way of doing business, especially their marketing. The book 'Strategic Pharmaceutical Marketing' thus, focuses on the practice of marketing prescription medications. It highlights the political, economical, social, technological and regulatory perspectives of pharmaceutical marketing, examines consumers, prescribers and explores positive marketing, pricing and distribution strategies. It provides a detailed explanation of pharmaceutical marketing as well as provides real-world case studies to demonstrate certain aspects. The book is scripted from an industry and academic perspective. It allows pharmaceutical marketers to have a detailed understanding of the functions of pharmaceutical marketing thus, helping them plan their marketing strategies in a more accurate and precise way. Individuals entering the field of marketing pharmaceutical products - sales personnel, assistant product managers, marketing staff as well as policy makers will achieve an in-depth understanding of the pharmaceutical industry. The marketing models described in the book along with promotion, distribution, and pricing scenarios, competitive analysis and market research will benefit the pharmaceutical marketer as a whole The book would provoke you to think of the surface and latent problems in new ways, find out different and more imaginative solutions and reflect on different options for tomorrow to scope with the chang ing situations. The book also deals with pharmaceutical marketing financial analysis to help measure the success of the marketing decisions and return on investment. This book, written in a reader-friendly style will help the marketers and CEOs of the pharmaceutical industry to bring about synergy in their strategies and operations, by thinking about the options, and looking at innovation as an important ingredient for progress. It will also help to generate cost-effective and new marketing approaches. Professionals in healthcare as also marketing executives in other industries will also find the book useful.
Download or read book Strategic Pharmaceutical Marketing written by Raja B Smarta and published by Pharmamed Press. This book was released on 2019-10-28 with total page 392 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The pharmaceutical industry today is faced with significant challenges owing to the volatile and competitive business environment. For both survival and growth, it is imperative for pharmaceutical organizations to rethink their way of doing business, especially their marketing. The book 'Strategic Pharmaceutical Marketing' thus, focuses on the practice of marketing prescription medications. It highlights the political, economical, social, technological and regulatory perspectives of pharmaceutical marketing, examines consumers, prescribers and explores positive marketing, pricing and distribution strategies. It provides a detailed explanation of pharmaceutical marketing as well as provides real-world case studies to demonstrate certain aspects. The book is scripted from an industry and academic perspective. It allows pharmaceutical marketers to have a detailed understanding of the functions of pharmaceutical marketing thus, helping them plan their marketing strategies in a more accurate and precise way. Individuals entering the field of marketing pharmaceutical products - sales personnel, assistant product managers, marketing staff as well as policy makers will achieve an in-depth understanding of the pharmaceutical industry. The marketing models described in the book along with promotion, distribution, and pricing scenarios, competitive analysis and market research will benefit the pharmaceutical marketer as a whole The book would provoke you to think of the surface and latent problems in new ways, find out different and more imaginative solutions and reflect on different options for tomorrow to scope with the chang ing situations. The book also deals with pharmaceutical marketing financial analysis to help measure the success of the marketing decisions and return on investment. This book, written in a reader-friendly style will help the marketers and CEOs of the pharmaceutical industry to bring about synergy in their strategies and operations, by thinking about the options, and looking at innovation as an important ingredient for progress. It will also help to generate cost-effective and new marketing approaches. Professionals in healthcare as also marketing executives in other industries will also find the book useful.
Author: David Herzberg
Publisher: University of Chicago Press
Published: 2020-10-23
Total Pages: 372
ISBN-13: 022673191X
DOWNLOAD EBOOKThe contemporary opioid crisis is widely seen as new and unprecedented. Not so. It is merely the latest in a long series of drug crises stretching back over a century. In White Market Drugs, David Herzberg explores these crises and the drugs that fueled them, from Bayer’s Heroin to Purdue’s OxyContin and all the drugs in between: barbiturate “goof balls,” amphetamine “thrill pills,” the “love drug” Quaalude, and more. As Herzberg argues, the vast majority of American experiences with drugs and addiction have taken place within what he calls “white markets,” where legal drugs called medicines are sold to a largely white clientele. These markets are widely acknowledged but no one has explained how they became so central to the medical system in a nation famous for its “drug wars”—until now. Drawing from federal, state, industry, and medical archives alongside a wealth of published sources, Herzberg re-connects America’s divided drug history, telling the whole story for the first time. He reveals that the driving question for policymakers has never been how to prohibit the use of addictive drugs, but how to ensure their availability in medical contexts, where profitability often outweighs public safety. Access to white markets was thus a double-edged sword for socially privileged consumers, even as communities of color faced exclusion and punitive drug prohibition. To counter this no-win setup, Herzberg advocates for a consumer protection approach that robustly regulates all drug markets to minimize risks while maintaining safe, reliable access (and treatment) for people with addiction. Accomplishing this requires rethinking a drug/medicine divide born a century ago that, unlike most policies of that racially segregated era, has somehow survived relatively unscathed into the twenty-first century. By showing how the twenty-first-century opioid crisis is only the most recent in a long history of similar crises of addiction to pharmaceuticals, Herzberg forces us to rethink our most basic ideas about drug policy and addiction itself—ideas that have been failing us catastrophically for over a century.
Download or read book White Market Drugs written by David Herzberg and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2020-10-23 with total page 372 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The contemporary opioid crisis is widely seen as new and unprecedented. Not so. It is merely the latest in a long series of drug crises stretching back over a century. In White Market Drugs, David Herzberg explores these crises and the drugs that fueled them, from Bayer’s Heroin to Purdue’s OxyContin and all the drugs in between: barbiturate “goof balls,” amphetamine “thrill pills,” the “love drug” Quaalude, and more. As Herzberg argues, the vast majority of American experiences with drugs and addiction have taken place within what he calls “white markets,” where legal drugs called medicines are sold to a largely white clientele. These markets are widely acknowledged but no one has explained how they became so central to the medical system in a nation famous for its “drug wars”—until now. Drawing from federal, state, industry, and medical archives alongside a wealth of published sources, Herzberg re-connects America’s divided drug history, telling the whole story for the first time. He reveals that the driving question for policymakers has never been how to prohibit the use of addictive drugs, but how to ensure their availability in medical contexts, where profitability often outweighs public safety. Access to white markets was thus a double-edged sword for socially privileged consumers, even as communities of color faced exclusion and punitive drug prohibition. To counter this no-win setup, Herzberg advocates for a consumer protection approach that robustly regulates all drug markets to minimize risks while maintaining safe, reliable access (and treatment) for people with addiction. Accomplishing this requires rethinking a drug/medicine divide born a century ago that, unlike most policies of that racially segregated era, has somehow survived relatively unscathed into the twenty-first century. By showing how the twenty-first-century opioid crisis is only the most recent in a long history of similar crises of addiction to pharmaceuticals, Herzberg forces us to rethink our most basic ideas about drug policy and addiction itself—ideas that have been failing us catastrophically for over a century.
